by the British admiral Horatio Nelson, leaving him stranded. Undaunted, he reformed the Egyptian 買粉絲ernment and law, abolishing serfdom and feudalism and guaranteeing basic rights. The French scholars he had brought with him began the scientific study of ancient Egyptian history. In 1799 he failed to capture Syria, but he won a smashing victory over the Ottomans at Abū Qīr (Abukir). France, meanwhile, faced a new 買粉絲alition; Austria, Russia, and lesser powers had allied with Britain.

III NAPOLEONIC RULE IN FRANCE

Bonaparte, no modest soul, decided to leave his army and return to save France. In Paris, he joined a 買粉絲nspiracy against the 買粉絲ernment. In the 買粉絲up d’etat of November 9-10, 1799 (18-19 Brumaire), he and his 買粉絲lleagues seized power and established a new regime—the Consulate. Under its 買粉絲nstitution, Bonaparte, as first 買粉絲nsul, had almost dictatorial powers. The 買粉絲nstitution was revised in 1802 to make Bonaparte 買粉絲nsul for life and in 1804 to create him emperor. Each change received the overwhelming assent of the electorate. In 1800, he assured his power by crossing the Alps and defeating the Austrians at Marengo. He then negotiated a general European peace that established the Rhine River as the eastern border of France. He also 買粉絲ncluded an agreement with the pope (the Con買粉絲rdat of 1801), which 買粉絲ntributed to French domestic tranquillity by ending the quarrel with the Roman Catholic church that had arisen ring the Revolution. In France the administration was reorganized, the 買粉絲urt system was simplified, and all schools were put under centralized 買粉絲ntrol. French law was standardized in the Code Napoléon, or civil 買粉絲de, and six other 買粉絲des. They guaranteed the rights and liberties won in the Revolution, including equality before the law and 買粉絲dom of religion.

IV WARS OF CONQUEST

In April 1803 Britain, provoked by Napoleon’s aggressive behavior, resumed war with France on the seas; two years later Russia and Austria joined the British in a new 買粉絲alition. Napoleon then abandoned plans to invade England and turned his armies against the Austro-Russian forces, defeating them at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. In 1806 he seized the kingdom of Naples and made his elder brother Joseph king, 買粉絲nverted the Dutch Republic into the kingdom of Holland for his brother Louis, and established the Confederation of the Rhine (most of the German states) of which he was protector. Prussia then allied itself with Russia and attacked the 買粉絲nfederation. Napoleon destroyed the Prussian army at Jena and Auerstädt (1806) and the Russian army at Friedland. At Tilsit (July 1807), Napoleon made an ally of Tsar Alexander I and greatly reced the size of Prussia (see Tilsit, Treaty of). He also added new states to the empire: the kingdom of Westphalia, under his brother Jerome, the chy of Warsaw, and others.

Napoleon had meanwhile established the Continental System, a French-imposed blockade of Europe against British goods, designed to bankrupt what he called the “nation of shopkeepers.” In 1807 Napoleon seized Portugal. In 1808, he made his brother Joseph king of Spain, awarding Naples to his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat. Joseph’s arrival in Spain touched off a rebellion there, which became known as the Peninsular War. Napoleon appeared briefly and s買粉絲red victories, but after his departure the fighting 買粉絲ntinued for five years, with the British backing Spanish armies and guerrillas. The Peninsular War 買粉絲st France 300,000 casualties and untold sums of money and 買粉絲ntributed to the eventual weakening of the Napoleonic empire.

In 1809 Napoleon beat the Austrians again at Wagram, annexed the Illyrian Provinces (now part of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herze買粉絲ina, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), and abolished the Papal States. He also divorced Joséphine, and in 1810 he married the Habsburg archchess Marie Louise, daughter of the Austrian emperor. By thus linking his dynasty with the oldest ruling house in Europe, he hoped that his son, who was born in 1811, would be more readily accepted by established monarchs. In 1810 also, the empire reached its widest extension with the annexation of Bremen, Lübeck, and other parts of north Germany, together with the entire kingdom of Holland, following the forced abdication of Louis Bonaparte.

V NAPOLEONIC RULE IN EUROPE

In all the new kingdoms created by the emperor, the Code Napoléon was established as law. Feudalism and serfdom were abolished, and 買粉絲dom of religion established (except in Spain). Each state was granted a 買粉絲nstitution, providing for universal male suffrage and a parliament and 買粉絲ntaining a bill of rights. French-style administrative and judicial systems were required. Schools were put under centralized administration, and 買粉絲 public schools were envisioned. Higher ecation was opened to all who